The U.S. Congress established the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) with the passage of the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968. The NFIP is a Federal program enabling property owners in participating communities to purchase insurance as a protection against flood losses in exchange for State and community floodplain management regulations that reduce future flood damages. Participation in the NFIP is based on an agreement between communities and the Federal Government. If a community adopts and enforces a floodplain management ordinance to reduce future flood risk to new construction in floodplains, the Federal Government will make flood insurance available within the community as a financial protection against flood losses.
This insurance is designed to provide an insurance alternative to disaster assistance to reduce the escalating costs of repairing damage to buildings and their contents caused by floods.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is an independent Federal agency reporting to the President. Founded in 1979, FEMA’s mission is to:
Lead America to prepare for, prevent, respond to, and recover from disaster.
FEMA is responsible for coordinating the Federal response to floods, earthquakes, hurricanes, and other natural or man-made disasters and providing disaster assistance to States, communities and individuals. Disasters are declared by the President at the request of the Governor of the impacted State if the impacts of the disaster exceed the ability of the State and the affected communities to respond. For declared disasters, FEMA activates the Federal Response Plan with 27 signatory agencies. The Federal Response Plan provides a framework for the coordination of assistance to States, communities, and individuals by Federal agencies.
The Federal Insurance and Mitigation Administration (FIMA) within FEMA is responsible for administering the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) and administering programs that provide assistance for mitigating future damages from natural hazards.
FEMA also provides training and technical assistance to governmental and non-governmental entities in preparing for and responding to disasters and for protecting against future disasters through mitigation. In addition to a headquarters office in Washington, D.C., FEMA has 10 regional offices.
Up until 1968, Federal actions related to flooding were primarily responses to significant events that resulted in using structural measures to control flooding. Major riverine flood disasters of the 1920’s and 1930’s led to considerable Federal involvement in protecting life and property from flooding through the use of structural flood-control projects, such as dams and levees, with the passage of the Flood Control Act of 1936. Generally, the only available financial recourse to assist flood victims was in the form of disaster assistance. Despite the billions of dollars in Federal investments in structural flood-control projects, the losses to life and property and the amount of assistance to disaster victims from floods continued to increase.
As early as the 1950’s, when the feasibility of providing flood insurance was first proposed, it became clear that private insurance companies could not profitably provide such coverage at an affordable price, primarily because of the catastrophic nature of flooding and the inability to develop an actuarial rate structure which could adequately reflect the risk to which flood-prone properties are exposed. Congress proposed an experimental program designed to demonstrate the feasibility of the private sector providing flood insurance by enacting the Federal Insurance Act of 1956, but this Act was never implemented.
In recognition of increasing flood losses and disaster relief costs, major steps were taken in the 1960’s to redefine Federal policy and approaches to flood control. In 1965, Congress passed the Southeast Hurricane Disaster Relief Act. The Act was as a result of the extensive damage caused by Hurricane Betsy in the Gulf States. The Act provided financial relief for the flooding victims and authorized a feasibility study of a national flood insurance program. The resulting report was entitled, “Insurance and Other Programs for Financial Assistance to Flood Victims”. Shortly thereafter, the Bureau of the Budget Task Force on Federal Flood Control in 1966 advocated a broader perspective on flood control within the context of floodplain development in House Document 465, “A Unified National Program for Managing Flood Losses.” House Document 465 included five major goals:
House Document 465 and the prior feasibility study provided the basis for the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968. The primary purposes of the 1968 Act creating the NFIP are to:
Section 1315 of the 1968 Act is a key provision that prohibits FEMA from providing flood insurance unless the community adopts and enforces floodplain management regulations that meet or exceed the floodplain management criteria established in accordance with Section 1361(c) of the Act. These floodplain management criteria are contained in 44 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 60, Criteria for Land Management and Use. The emphasis of the NFIP floodplain management requirements is directed toward reducing threats to lives and the potential for damages to property in flood-prone areas. Over 19,700 communities presently participate in the NFIP. These include nearly all communities with significant flood hazards.
In addition to providing flood insurance and reducing flood damages through floodplain management regulations, the NFIP identifies and maps the Nation’s floodplains. Mapping flood hazards creates broad-based awareness of the flood hazards and provides the data needed for floodplain management programs and to actuarially rate new construction for flood insurance.
When the NFIP was created, the U.S. Congress recognized that insurance for “existing buildings” constructed before a community joined the Program would be prohibitively expensive if the premiums were not subsidized by the Federal Government. Congress also recognized that most of these flood-prone buildings were built by individuals who did not have sufficient knowledge of the flood hazard to make informed decisions. Under the NFIP, “existing buildings are generally referred to as Pre-FIRM (Flood Insurance Rate Map) buildings. These buildings were built before the flood risk was known and identified on the community’s FIRM. Currently about 26 percent of the 4.3 million NFIP policies in force are Pre-FIRM subsidized compared to 70 percent of the policies being subsidized in 1978.
In exchange for the availability of subsidized insurance for existing buildings, communities are required to protect new construction and substantially improved structures through adoption and enforcement of community floodplain management ordinances. The 1968 Act requires that full actuarial rates reflecting the complete flood risk be charged on all buildings constructed or substantially improved on or after the effective date of the initial FIRM for the community or after December 31, 1974, whichever is later. These buildings are generally referred to as “Post-FIRM” buildings.
Early in the Program’s history, the Federal Government found that providing subsidized flood insurance for existing buildings was not a sufficient incentive for communities to voluntarily join the NFIP or for individuals to purchase flood insurance. Tropical Storm Agnes in 1972, which caused extensive riverine flooding along the east coast, proved that few property owners in identified floodplains were insured. This storm cost the Nation more in disaster assistance than any previous disaster. For the Nation as a whole, only a few thousand communities participated in the NFIP and only 95,000 policies were in force.
As a result, Congress passed the Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973. The 1973 Act prohibits Federal agencies from providing financial assistance for acquisition or construction of buildings and certain disaster assistance in the floodplains in any community that did not participate in the NFIP by July 1, 1975, or within 1 year of being identified as flood-prone.
Additionally, the 1973 Act required that Federal agencies and federally insured or regulated lenders had to require flood insurance on all grants and loans for acquisition or construction of buildings in designated Special Flood Hazard Areas (SFHAs) in communities that participate in the NFIP. This requirement is referred to as the Mandatory Flood Insurance Purchase Requirement. The SFHA is that land within the floodplain of a community subject to a 1 percent or greater chance of flooding in any given year, commonly referred to as the 100-year flood. The Mandatory Flood Insurance Purchase Requirement, in particular, resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of communities that joined the NFIP in subsequent years. In 1973, just over 2,200 communities participated in the NFIP. Within 4 years, approximately 15,000 communities had joined the Program. It also resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of flood insurance policies in force. In 1977, approximately 1.2 million flood insurance policies were in force, an increase of almost 900,000 over the number policies in force in December of 1973.
The authors of the original study of the NFIP thought that the passage of time, natural forces, and more stringent floodplain management requirements and building codes would gradually eliminate the number of Pre-FIRM structures. Nevertheless, modern construction techniques have extended the useful life of these Pre-FIRM buildings beyond what was originally expected.
However, their numbers overall continue to decrease. The decrease in the number of Pre-FIRM buildings has been attributed to a number of factors such as, severe floods in which buildings were destroyed or substantially damaged, redevelopment, natural attrition, acquisition of flood damaged structures, as well as flood control projects.
In 1994, Congress amended the 1968 Act and the 1973 Act with the National Flood Insurance Reform Act (NFIRA). The 1994 Act included measures, among others, to:
Funding for the NFIP is through the National Flood Insurance Fund, which was established in the Treasury by the 1968 Act. Premiums collected are deposited into the fund, and losses and operating and administrative costs are paid out of the fund. In addition, the Program has the authority to borrow up to $1.5 billion from the Treasury, which must be repaid along with interest. Until 1986, Federal salaries and program expenses, as well as the costs associated with flood hazard mapping and floodplain management were paid by an annual appropriation from Congress. From 1987 to 1990, Congress required the Program to pay these expenses out of premium dollars. When expressed in current dollars, $485 million of policyholder premiums were transferred to pay salary and other expenses of the Program. Beginning in 1991, a Federal policy fee of $25 dollars, which was increased to $30 in 1995, is applied to most policies in order to generate the funds for salaries, expenses, and mitigation costs.
The three basic components of the Program – identifying and mapping flood-prone communities, the requirement that communities adopt and enforce floodplain management regulations, and the provision of flood insurance – are described in detail below. Other aspects and components of the Program, including the Mandatory Purchase Requirement, the Community Rating System and the Flood Mitigation Assistance program, are also described.
The Director of FEMA is required by statute to identify and map the Nation’s flood-prone areas and to establish flood-risk Zones in such areas. Flood hazard maps have been issued for over 19,200 communities at a cost of over $1.5 billion (actual dollars) [$2.8 billion in 2001 dollars]. To date, approximately 100,000 flood map panels have been produced depicting approximately 150,000 square miles of floodplain areas.
The FEMA flood hazard maps are used an estimated 15 million times annually for State and community floodplain management regulations, for calculating flood insurance premiums, and for determining whether property owners are required by law to obtain flood insurance as a condition of obtaining mortgage loans or other Federal or federally related financial assistance.
FEMA’s flood hazard maps are also used by States and communities for emergency management and for land use and water resources planning and by Federal agencies implementing Executive Order 11988, Floodplain Management for Federal actions proposed in or affecting floodplains.
The NFIP would not be able to offer insurance at affordable rates without the existence of risk management (floodplain management) to reduce flood losses. In order to assess and manage the flood risk, a national standard was needed. The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, which initially administered the NFIP before FEMA was created, began its administration of the NFIP by calling on a group of experts to advise the agency as to the best standard to be used as the basis for risk assessment, insurance rating, and floodplain management for the Program. After extensive study and coordination with Federal and State agencies, this group recommended the 1-percent-annual-chance flood (also referred to as the 100-year or “Base Flood”) be used as the standard for the NFIP.
The 1-percent-annual-chance flood was chosen on the basis that it provides a higher level of protection while not imposing overly stringent requirements or the burden of excessive costs on property owners. The 1-percent-annual-chance flood (or 100-year flood) represents a magnitude and frequency that has a statistical probability of being equaled or exceeded in any given year, or, stated alternatively, the 100-year flood has a 26 percent (or 1 in 4) chance of occurring over the life of a 30-year mortgage.
In 1973, the Senate Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs, which had oversight responsibility for the NFIP, heard arguments on both sides on the appropriateness of the 100-year base flood standard. The Committee concluded that the 1-percent-annual-chance flood was reasonable and consistent with national objectives in reducing flood losses. In 1981, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) directed FEMA to review the use of the 1-percent-annual chance flood as part of the President’s 1981 Task Force on Regulatory Relief. In its report to OMB, FEMA reaffirmed the overwhelming support for the Base Flood standard in responses from the public and private sector.
The 1-percent-annual-chance flood is a regulatory standard used by Federal agencies, and most States, to administer floodplain management programs. The 1-percent-annual-chance flood standard has been used since the inception of the NFIP and is used for floodplain management purposes in all of the 19,200 participating communities that have been issued flood hazard maps.
To meet the objective that studies be conducted to accurately assess the flood risk within each flood-prone community, the 1968 Act called for: 1) the identification and publication of information within five years for all floodplain areas that have special flood hazards; and 2) the establishment of flood-risk Zones in all such areas to be completed over a 15-year period following passage of the Act.
When the NFIP was initially established, communities had to have been mapped and have flood risk Zones established before they could participate in the Program. Within the first year of NFIP’s operation, it became evident that the time required to complete the detailed flood insurance studies would markedly delay implementation of the Program in many flood-prone communities. As a result, an interim means for more rapid community participation in the NFIP had to be provided. The Housing and Urban Development Act of 1969 expanded participation by authorizing an Emergency Program under which insurance coverage could be provided at non-actuarial, federally subsidized rates in limited amounts during the period prior to completion of a community’s Flood Insurance Study (FIS).
Until an FIS could be conducted, Flood Hazard Boundary Maps, which delineated the boundaries of the community’s SFHAs, were prepared using approximate methods. These methods identified on an approximate basis a 1-percent-annual-chance floodplain, but did not include the determination of Base Flood Elevations (BFEs) (100-year flood elevations), flood depths, or floodways. The Flood Hazard Boundary Map was intended to assist communities in managing floodplain development, and to assist insurance agents and property owners in identifying those areas where the purchase of flood insurance was advisable.
FISs that use detailed hydrologic and hydraulic analyses to develop BFEs and designate floodways and risk Zones for developed areas of the floodplain were subsequently produced for most NFIP communities. Once more detailed risk data were provided to communities, the community could enter the Regular Program whereby the community is required to adopt more comprehensive floodplain management requirements and owners of structures could purchase higher amounts of insurance.
In producing and updating FISs, FEMA typically uses a combination of two study approaches (approximate and detailed) in identifying a community’s flood hazards. Detailed study methods typically employ the use of engineering models and, at a minimum, result in the determination of BFEs or flood depths and floodways that will be displayed on the FIRM. In general, the decision whether to use the approximate method or detailed method is based on existing and anticipated development in and near the floodplain. Flood hazard information for flooding sources that affect developed or developing areas are based on detailed studies whenever possible; approximate study methods, which are less rigorous than detailed methods and do not determine BFEs or floodways, may be used for undeveloped or sparsely developed areas.
An FIS usually generates the following flood hazard information:
The results of the FIS are presented on a map, referred to as a Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM), and presented in the FIS report in a narrative and graphically as flood profiles attached to the narrative. FEMA determines the 1-percent-annual-chance flood, shown on the FIRMs as A Zones or V Zones, from information obtained through consultation with the community, and from floodplain topographic surveys, detailed hydrologic and hydraulic analyses, and historic records. FEMA uses commonly accepted computer models and engineering methods that estimate hydrologic and hydraulic conditions to determine the 1-percent-annual-chance flood, to determine BFEs, and to designate flood-risk Zones.
FEMA defines technical requirements, product specifications for Flood Hazard Maps and related NFIP products, and associated coordination and documentation activities in Guidelines and Specifications for Flood Hazard Mapping Partners, dated February 2002. The Guidelines, which are used to prepare FISs and restudies, provide information for the evaluation of riverine and alluvial fan flood hazards, coastal flooding and flood-related erosion, and flood hazards along the Great Lakes. The Guidelines also include procedures for conducting hydrologic and hydraulic analyses of a flooding source or sources in order to establish BFEs. Also, included in the Guidelines is information on process and products associated with the Cooperative Technical Partners initiative, digital Flood Insurance Rate Map (DFIRM) specifications, and the option of including a flood hazard Zone reflecting future conditions on the FIRM when requested by the community.
Along rivers, streams, and lakes within the United States, FEMA computes flood elevations using computer models, statistical techniques, or both. These elevations are a function of the amount of water expected to enter a particular system by means of precipitation and runoff. The SFHAs in riverine areas are primarily identified as “A Zones” on the FIRM.
Along the coast, FEMA determines SFHAs by an analysis of storm surge, wind direction and speed, wave heights, and other factors. FEMA designates these areas along the coast as both V Zones and A Zones on the FIRM. V Zones are the more hazardous coastal flood Zones because they are subject to high velocity wave action. FEMA applies the V-Zone designation to those areas along the coast where water depth and other conditions would support at least a 3-foot wave height. FEMA also considers other factors in identifying V Zones, such as wave run-up.
FEMA usually designates A Zones in coastal areas landward of the V Zone. Coastal flood hazards areas mapped as A Zones can be subject to storm surge and damaging waves; however, the waves are less than 3 feet in height.
Over 10,000 communities have been provided detailed FISs and have been issued FIRMs that include BFEs for Zones AE, A1-30, AH, AO, AR/AE, AR/A1-30, AR/AO, AR/AH, VE, and V1-30. Most of these NFIP communities will have FIRMs that include a combination of SFHAs that have been studied in detail with BFEs and floodway data and SFHAs that have been studied using approximate methods which have been designated Zone A without BFEs or floodway designations.
Zone A is the flood insurance rate Zone that corresponds to the 1-percent annual chance floodplains that are determined in the Flood Insurance Study by approximate methods of analysis. Because detailed hydraulic analyses are not performed for such areas, no Base Flood Elevations (BFE) or depths are shown within this Zone. Mandatory flood insurance purchase requirements apply.
Zone AE-A1-30 rates correspond to the areas of 1-percent annual chance floodplains, determined by detailed methods of analyses. Usually Base Flood Elevations derived from the detailed hydraulic analyses are shown at selected intervals within their Zone. Mandatory flood insurance purchase requirements apply.
Zone AH is the flood insurance rate Zone that corresponds to the area of 1-percent annual chance shallow flooding with a constant water-surface elevation (usually areas of ponding) where average depts. are between 1 and 3 feet. The BFE is derived from the detailed hydraulic analyses are shown at selected intervals within this Zone. Mandatory flood insurance purchasing requirements applies.
Zone AO is the flood Zone rate that corresponds to the 1 percent shallow flooding (usually sheet flow on sloping terrain) where average depths are between 1 and 3 feet. Average flood depths derived from the detailed hydraulic analyses are shown within this Zone. In addition, alluvial fan flood hazards are shown as Zone AO, on the flood insurance rate map. Mandatory flood insurance purchasing requirement applies.
Zone AR is used to depict areas protected from flood hazards by flood control structures. Zone AR is the flood insurance rate Zone used to depict areas protected from flood hazards by flood control structures, such as a levee, that are being restored. FEMA will consider using the Zone AR designation for a community if the flood protection system has been deemed restorable for a Federal agency in consultation with a local project sponsor, a minimum level of flood protection is still provided to the community by the system, and restoration of the flood protections system is scheduled to begin within a designated time period and in accordance with a progress plan negotiated between the community and FEMA. Mandatory purchase requirements for flood insurance will apply in Zone AR, but the rate will not exceed the rate for an unnumbered Zone A if the structure is built in compliance with Zone AR floodplain management regulations.
For floodplain management in Zone AR areas, the property owner is not required to elevate an existing structure when making improvements to the structure. However, for new construction, the structure must be elevated (or flood proofed for non-residential structures) so that the lowest floor, including basement is a minimum of 3 feet above the highest adjacent grade, if the depth of the Base Flood Elevation (BFE) does not exceed 5 feet at the proposed development site. For infill sites, rehabilitation of existing structures, or redevelopment of previously developed area, there is a 3-foot elevation requirement regardless of the depth of the BFE at the project site.
The Zone AR designation will be removed and the restored flood control system will be shown as providing protection from the 1-percent-annual-chance flood on the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) map upon completion of the restoration project and submittal of all the necessary data to FEMA.,
Zone A99 is the flood insurance rate Zone that corresponds to areas within the 1-percent-annual-chance floodplain that will be protected by a Federal flood protection system where construction has reached specified statutory milestones. No BSF elevations of depths are shown within this Zone. Mandatory flood insurance purchase requirements apply.
Zone D designation is used for areas where there are possible but undetermined flood hazards. In areas designated as Zone D, no analysis of flood hazards has been conducted. Mandatory flood insurance purchase requirements do not apply, but coverage is available. The flood insurance rates for properties in Zone D are commensurate with the uncertainty of the flood risk.
Zone V is the flood insurance rate Zone that corresponds to areas within the 1-percent annual chance coastal floodplains that have additional hazards associated with storm waves. Because approximate hydraulic analyses are performed for such areas, no BSF are shown within this Zone. Mandatory flood insurance purchaser requirements apply.
Zone VE is the flood insurance rate Zone that corresponds to areas within the 1-percent annual chance coastal floodplain that have additional hazards associated with storm waves. BSF derived from the detailed hydraulic analyses are shown at selected intervals within this Zone. Mandatory flood insurance requirements apply.
Zone B, C and X are the flood insurance rate Zones that correspond to areas outside the 1-percent annual chance floodplain, areas of 1-percent-annual-chance sheet flow flooding where average depts. are less than 1 foot, areas of 1-percent-annual-chance stream flooding where the contributing drainage area is less than 1 square mile, or areas protected from the 1-percent annual chance flood by levees. No BSF or depths are shown within this Zone. Insurance purchase is not required in these Zones.
A draft FIS can be prepared by a study contractor to FEMA under the NFIP Regulations at 44 CFR Part 66 or by appellants under 44 CFR Part 65 for the purpose of establishing or revising BFE and floodway data. FEMA reviews and modifies, as appropriate, the draft FIS to ensure it complies with established NFIP criteria. Once FEMA has received and approved the draft FIS, FEMA releases the information to the public as a Preliminary FIS and FIRM for review and comment during a statutory 90-day appeal period before proposed elevations become effective. During the appeal period, any owner or lessee of real property within the community where the proposed elevation determination has been made may file a written appeal. The appeal must be based on a demonstration that the elevations proposed by FEMA are scientifically and/or technically incorrect. Until such time as the 90-day appeal period is completed and the community is provided with a notice of final flood elevation determination, the BFE and floodway data in the FIS are considered preliminary and subject to change. During the preparation and review of the FIS and the appeals, FEMA coordinates closely with State and local officials and presents its findings at public meetings.
FEMA does not design, construct, fund, or approve levee systems or floodwall systems. However, FEMA has developed stringent criteria that must be met before any system can be depicted as providing protection from the 1-percent-annual-chance flood on a FIRM. Once the criteria in the NFIP regulations have been met, FEMA will remove the property behind the levee or floodwall from the 1-percent-annual-chance floodplain. FEMA’s review of a levee or floodwall system is for the sole purpose of establishing appropriate risk-Zone determinations for NFIP maps and does not constitute a determination or warranty by FEMA as to how a structure or system will perform in a flood event. Because of the potentially devastating effects to life and property should a levee or floodwall fail or be overtopped, FEMA takes special care in considering the impacts of such structures on flood hazards.
FEMA recognizes only a levee system or floodwall system that meets, and continues to meet, minimum design standards that provides protection from the 1-percent-annual-chance flood. Specifically, the criteria established in 44 CFR §65.10 must be satisfied before a levee may be credited and mapped as providing protection from the 1-percent-annual-chance flood event. The criteria include:
The flood risk information presented on the FIRM and in the FIS report forms the technical basis for the administration of the NFIP. FEMA exercises great care to ensure that the analytical methods employed in the FISs are scientifically and technically correct, that the engineering standards followed meet professional standards, and, ultimately, that the results of the FIS are accurate. Although the NFIP maps and FIS reports are prepared according to rigorous technical standards, FEMA recognizes that changes to the maps and reports may be necessary. Some reasons for the changes are due to improvements in the techniques used in assessing flood risks, changes in physical conditions in the floodplains or watersheds, and the availability of new scientific or technical data.
In addition, the limitations imposed by the scales at which the maps are prepared may result in individual properties being inadvertently included in SFHAs. FEMA has developed a process, referred to as a Letter of Map Amendment (LOMA), to correct these inadvertent inclusions. A LOMA results from an administrative procedure that involves the review of technical data submitted by the owner or lessee of property who believes the property has incorrectly been included in a designated SFHA. A LOMA amends the currently effective FEMA map and establishes that a specific property is not located in an SFHA, thereby removing the Mandatory Flood Insurance Purchase Requirement.
FEMA has similarly established administrative procedures for changing effective maps based on new or revised scientific or technical data that reflect other changes to the floodplain including projects such as fill and flood control measures. The map actions are referred to as Letter of Map Revision based on Fill (LOMR-F) and Letter of Map Revision (LOMR) respectively.
The NFIP regulations allow FEMA to revise and amend maps and FIS reports, as warranted, or after it receives requests from community officials and individual property owners. To help FEMA ensure that the maps and reports present information that accurately reflects existing flood risks, the NFIP regulations require that each NFIP community inform FEMA of any physical changes that affect BFEs in the community and, within 6 months of the date that such data are available, submit those data that show the effects of the changes.
In making revisions and amendments, FEMA must adhere to the same engineering standards applied in the preparation of the original NFIP maps and FIS reports. Therefore, when requesting changes to NFIP maps and reports, community officials and property owners are required to submit adequate supporting data. Those data enable FEMA to review and evaluate the requests and to carry out its responsibility of ensuring that the flood-risk information presented is scientifically and technically correct.
Because LOMAs, LOMR-Fs, and LOMRs officially amend or revise the flood maps, they must reflect existing conditions, such as an “as-built” project. Communities, developers, and property owners also frequently submit requests for proposed projects in floodplain areas to FEMA for review and comment. Such requests typically include data and analyses of the pre- and post-project conditions so that FEMA can ascertain the impact on flood hazards of the proposed project. FEMA reviews such requests using the same data and engineering standards that are used for “as-built” requests. FEMA’s response is provided in the form of a “conditional” LOMA, LOMR-F, or LOMR, which state whether the proposed project, if built as proposed, would justify a map revision. A conditional LOMA, LOMR-F, or LOMR does not constitute a building permit; the authority to approve projects and issue building permits lies with the local community and, in some instances, State agencies.
Congress passed the Coastal Barrier Resources Act in 1982 and the Coastal Barrier Improvement Act in 1990, defining and establishing a system of protected coastal areas (including the Great Lakes) and Otherwise Protected Areas (OPAs) known as the Coastal Barrier Resources System (CBRS). The Acts provide protection to CBRS areas by prohibiting most expenditures of Federal funds in CBRS areas, including the sale of flood insurance for buildings constructed or substantially improved after the effective date of the CBRS area. These prohibitions refer to "any form of loan, grant, guarantee, insurance, payment, rebate, subsidy or any other form of direct or indirect Federal assistance," with specific and limited exceptions.
Congress designated the initial CBRS areas in 1982 and is the only entity that may authorize a revision to CBRS boundaries . Revisions to CBRSs are typically authorized by Congress based on State and local requests as well as recommendations made by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Because of the prohibition on the sale of flood insurance for buildings constructed or substantially improved after the CBRS effective date, it is critical to depict these areas on FIRMs. Thus, FEMA, in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, transfers the boundaries from Congressionally-adopted source maps, titled “Coastal Barrier Resource System,” to FIRMs so that insurance agents will not inadvertently sell flood insurance policies for buildings not eligible for the purchase of flood insurance.
Nationwide, approximately 75 percent of the FEMA flood maps are more than 10 years old. Because flood hazards are dynamic and usually increase over time as development occurs, old maps tend to understate actual, existing flood hazards. Additionally, most of the maps were produced using now antiquated manual cartographic techniques. The primary reason for the existing backlog of outdated maps has been inadequate program funding over the past 20 years. As a result, in 1997, FEMA designed a plan to modernize the FEMA flood-mapping program.
With implementation of the modernization plan, the flood hazard information provided to communities would be more accurate and extensive, resulting in safer communities. The plan proposes a 7-year upgrade to the flood map inventory and an enhancement of products, services, and process that entails:
Over the proposed 7-year modernization period, the entire flood map inventory would be converted to a digital format. Additionally, approximately 13,700 new digital map panels would be created for flood-prone communities that do not currently have flood maps.
As a cornerstone of the plan, FEMA continues to fully integrate communities, States, and regional agencies in the flood mapping process through the Cooperating Technical Partners (CTP) program. To date, more than 115 partners have joined the CTP program, which includes two large remapping efforts for the States of New York and North Carolina. The program initiated for the State of North Carolina is the first statewide flood mapping initiative and includes 16 other Federal agencies. The CTP initiative allows partnering entities to perform all or portions of data collection and mapping tasks. Cooperating Technical Partners can use the Guidelines and Specifications for Flood Hazard Mapping Partners in performing supporting technical analyses and preparation of flood hazard maps.
To date, funding to implement the map modernization plan has not been made available.
Historically, flood hazard information presented on NFIP flood maps has been based on the existing conditions of the floodplain and watershed. The primary reason is that future land-use development, such as urban growth, is uncertain and difficult to predict and has not, therefore, been considered in FISs.
In recent years, a number of communities that are experiencing urban growth have expressed interest in using hydrology based on future conditions to regulate floodplain development.
FEMA conducted an extensive evaluation to determine whether future conditions flood hazard information could and should be placed on FIRMs and in the accompanying FIS. On November 27, 2001, FEMA issued a final rule that allows for floodplains that reflect future conditions hydrology to be shown on the FIRM at the request of the community.
The future conditions flood hazard information will be provided for informational purposes only and it is up to the community to decide whether to use the information to regulate floodplain development. When future conditions floodplains are included on the FIRM, both the existing conditions floodplain and the future conditions floodplain will be shown. The existing conditions data will continue to be used to establish flood insurance rates and to determine if flood insurance is required. The new procedure will allow FEMA to maintain national standards while at the same time providing additional information for use by the community.
Section 1315 of the 1968 Act prohibits FEMA from providing flood insurance to property owners unless the community adopts and enforces floodplain management criteria established under the authority of Section 1361(c) of the Act. These criteria are established in the NFIP regulations at 44 CFR §60.3. The community must adopt a floodplain management ordinance that meets or exceeds the minimum NFIP criteria. Under the NFIP, “community” is defined as:
“Any State, or area or political subdivision thereof, or any Indian tribe or authorized tribal organization, or Alaska Native village or authorized native organization, which has authority to adopt and enforce floodplain management regulations for the areas within its jurisdiction.”
The Program has served as an important impetus for the establishment of floodplain management programs nationwide in the approximately 19,700 participating communities and most States and territories. Community participation in the NFIP is voluntary. Prior to the creation of the NFIP, floodplain management as a practice was not well established – only a few States and several hundred communities actually regulated floodplain development. For many communities, the NFIP was the community’s initial exposure to land use planning and community regulations. The power to regulate development in the floodplain, including requiring and approving permits, inspecting property, and citing violations, is granted to communities under a State’s police powers. FEMA has no direct involvement in the administration of local floodplain management ordinances. Since the Federal Government does not have land use authority, the NFIP is based on the Federal government’s power to spend under the Constitution rather than any Federal authority to regulate land use.
Under the NFIP, the minimum floodplain management requirements that a community must adopt depends on the type of flood risk data (detailed FIS and FIRMs with BFEs or approximate A Zones and V Zones without BFEs) that the community has been provided by FEMA. Under the NFIP regulations, participating NFIP communities are required to regulate all development in SFHAs. “Development” is defined as:
“(A)ny man-made change to improved or unimproved real estate, including but not limited to buildings or other structures, mining, dredging, filling, grading, paving, excavation or drilling operations or storage of equipment or materials.”
Before a property owner can undertake any development in the SFHA, a permit must be obtained from the community. The community is responsible for reviewing the proposed development to ensure that it complies with the community’s floodplain management ordinance. Communities are also required to review proposed development in SFHAs to ensure that all necessary permits have been received from those governmental agencies from which approval is required by Federal or State law, such as 404 wetland permits from the Army Corps of Engineers or permits under the Endangered Species Act.
Under the NFIP, communities must review subdivision proposals and other proposed new development, including manufactured home parks or subdivisions to ensure that these development proposals are reasonably safe from flooding and that utilities and facilities servicing these subdivisions or other development are constructed to minimize or eliminate flood damage.
In general, the NFIP minimum floodplain management regulations require that new construction or substantially improved or substantially damaged existing buildings in A Zones must have their lowest floor (including basement) elevated to or above the Base Flood Elevation (BFE). Nonresidential structures in A Zones can be either elevated or dry-floodproofed. In V Zones, the building must be elevated on piles and columns and the bottom of the lowest horizontal structural member of the lowest floor of all new construction or substantially improved existing buildings must be elevated to or above the BFE. The minimum floodplain management requirements are further described below:
For all new and substantially improved buildings in A Zones:
These openings allow floodwaters to reach equal levels on both sides of the walls and thereby lessen the potential for damage. Any enclosed area below the BFE can only be used for the parking of vehicles, building access, or storage.
In addition, to the above requirements, communities are required to select and adopt a regulatory floodway in riverine A Zones. The area chosen for the regulatory floodway must be designed to carry the waters of the 1-percent-annual-chance flood without increasing the water surface elevation of that flood more than one foot at any point. Once the floodway is designated, the community must prohibit development within that floodway which would cause any increase in flood heights. The floodway generally includes the river channel and adjacent floodplain areas that often contain forests and wetlands, an area estimated at 5.8 million acres (or over 9,000 square miles) on the FIRMs. This requirement has the effect of limiting development in the most hazardous and environmentally sensitive part of the floodplain.
For all new and substantially improved buildings in V Zones:
In responding to the public’s desire to have an enclosed area below an elevated building, but recognizing the potential risks to lives and property, the NFIP floodplain management regulations permit certain limited uses of enclosures below the lowest floor in A Zones or V Zones. Under the NFIP, the enclosed area below an elevated building in an A Zone or V Zone can only be used for the parking of vehicles, building access, or storage. The allowance of these uses below the BFE is permitted because the amount of damage caused by flooding to these areas can easily be kept to a minimum by following the performance standards for the design and construction of enclosures in A Zones and V Zones described above and by using flood-resistant building materials. To further minimize flood damages, mechanical, electrical, plumbing equipment, and other service facilities must be designed and/or located above the BFE so as to prevent damage during conditions of flooding.
The Program has led to a large reduction in potential average annual flood damages for new construction (Post-FIRM structures). The NFIP’s loss experience indicates that $1 billion in flood damages are avoided each year as a result of the NFIP floodplain management regulations for new construction. Structures built to NFIP criteria experience 80 percent less damage through reduced frequency and severity of losses.
On the other hand, there is still significant flood damage potential for existing flood-prone buildings (Pre-FIRM structures). According to estimates developed in a 1997 study, there are 6.6 million structures located in SFHAs identified on the FIRMs. These 6.6 million structures include 6.2 million residential structures (representing about 8 million housing units) and 0.4 million nonresidential structures. Of the 6.6 million structures, 4.3 million Pre-FIRM structures were built prior to the issuance of a community’s FIRM and the adoption of floodplain management regulations.
The problem is not with the total universe of Pre-FIRM buildings. The 4.3 million Pre-FIRM structures have varying degrees of flood risk with just over half of these structures estimated to have their lowest floor below the BFE. Of those Pre-FIRM structures that have their lowest floor below the BFE, a smaller group of Pre-FIRM structures have their lowest floor well below the BFE and are subject to the severest risk.
The NFIP substantial improvement requirement and substantial damage requirement provides a mechanism to ensure that a significant increase in investment in existing Pre-FIRM buildings will receive needed protection from the flood risk. If a community determines that the cost of improvements to a home or business equals or exceeds 50% of the market value of the building, the building is considered a “substantial improvement”. If a community determines that the cost of restoring a home or business equals or exceeds 50 of the market value of the building before the damage from any origin occurred, the building is considered "substantially damaged". A substantially improved building or substantially damaged building must meet the minimum requirements of the NFIP. I t is the community’s responsibility to make substantial improvement or substantial damage determinations. The substantial damage requirement of the NFIP has been difficult for some communities to enforce. One of the primary reasons for this has been that local officials find it difficult to enforce the requirement on property owners who do not have the financial resources to both repair and bring the buildings into compliance. In the last ten years, financial resources to mitigate substantially damaged buildings have improved. With passage of the National Flood Insurance Reform Act of 1994, activities that support reducing future damages to existing flood-prone buildings that have been substantially damaged now include: Increased Cost of Compliance coverage and the Flood Mitigation Assistance (FMA) program.
In addition, FEMA’s Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP) under Section 404 of the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Relief Act of 1988, as amended, also provides considerable resources in reducing or eliminating future flood damages to existing structures after a flood disaster. The Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000, which amended the Stafford Act, will provide additional resources for mitigation projects and planning. These activities are further described under “Other NFIP Activities” below. FEMA’s resources combined with resources from other Federal agencies, such as the Department of Housing and Urban Development and the Small Business Administration, have improved the level of compliance with the substantial damage requirement by providing property owners with the financial help they need to meet Program requirements.
A number of the existing Pre-FIRM structures experience repeat flood damages and represent a significant problem for the Program. NFIP Repetitive Loss Properties have been generally defined as those that have had at least two losses of $1,000 or more within any 10-year period. Currently there are about 45,000 insured repetitive loss structures in the country. These buildings represent a serious drain on the National Flood Insurance Fund and have accounted for nearly one-third of all paid losses.
The NFIP Regulations do not include specific criteria to address repetitively damaged structures similar to the substantial damage requirement. However, FEMA has developed a Repetitive Loss Strategy to identify properties throughout the country that are most at risk for repeat flooding, and to reduce their exposure through targeted buyouts, relocation, and elevation. The strategy targets a subset of Repetitive Loss Properties that includes currently insured properties that have 2 or 3 losses where the cumulative flood insurance claim payments are greater than the building value or those properties that have had 4 or more losses. These represent around 10,000 buildings. FEMA’s mitigation programs are being focused on these buildings, which will result in significant reductions in NFIP claims and overall flood damages as they are mitigated.
Once FEMA provides a community with the flood hazard information upon which floodplain management regulations are based, the community is required to adopt a floodplain management ordinance that meets or exceeds the minimum NFIP requirements. FEMA can suspend communities from the Program for failure to adopt once the community is notified of being flood-prone or for failure to maintain a floodplain management ordinance that meets or exceeds the minimum requirements of the NFIP. The procedures for suspending a community from the Program for failure to adopt or maintain a floodplain management ordinance that meets or exceeds the minimum requirements of the NFIP are established in the NFIP regulations at 44 CFR §59.24(a) and (d).
Since 1968, just over 2,300 communities have been suspended for failure to adopt. Most of these communities subsequently adopted a compliant ordinance and were eventually reinstated into the Program A community either has or does not have a compliant ordinance. There are currently 261 communities suspended from the Program for failure to adopt floodplain management regulations that meet or exceed the minimum NFIP requirements. These are generally small communities with little or no floodplain development.
In these suspended communities, flood insurance is not available to property owners. In addition, these communities are subject to limitations on Federal financial assistance in Section 202(a) of 1973 Act which prohibits Federal officers or agencies from approving any form of loan, grant, guaranty, insurance, payment, rebate, subsidy, disaster assistance loan or grant, for acquisition or construction purposes within SFHAs. For example, this would prohibit mortgage loans guaranteed by the Department of Veterans Affairs, insured by the Federal Housing Administration, or secured by the Rural Economic and Community Development Services. In the case of disaster assistance under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act of 1988, as amended, this prohibition only applies to assistance in connection with a flood.
Furthermore, Section 202(b) of the 1973 Act requires federally regulated lending institutions to notify the purchaser or lessee of improved real property situated in a SFHA whether Federal disaster assistance will be available when such property is being used to secure a loan that is being made, increased, extended or renewed.
FEMA monitors communities to ensure that they have adopted an ordinance that meets or exceeds the minimum NFIP floodplain management criteria and to ensure that they are effectively enforcing their ordinance. While the NFIP floodplain management criteria are administered by States and communities through their floodplain management regulations, FEMA’s role is to provide technical assistance and to monitor communities for compliance with the minimum NFIP criteria. If communities do not adequately enforce their floodplain management regulations, they can be placed on probation and potentially suspended from the Program following probation.
FEMA or States on behalf of FEMA conduct Community Assistance Visits (CAVs) and Community Assistance Contacts (CACs) to monitor community floodplain management programs. A CAV is a scheduled visit to an NFIP community for the purpose of conducting a comprehensive assessment of the community’s floodplain management program. The CAV is also used as an opportunity to provide technical assistance to the community. A CAV typically involves a tour of the floodplain, a meeting with local floodplain management officials, and an examination of the community’s floodplain development permit and variance files. The visit is documented in a follow-up letter to the community. If any issues are identified during the CAV, such as a possible floodplain violation or program deficiency, these issues are also addressed in the follow-up letter. The community is responsible for resolving any program deficiencies or remedying any violations identified.
A CAC is used to establish a contact with a community for the purpose of determining if any problems or issues exist and to offer the community assistance if necessary. CACs can be conducted by means of a telephone call or brief visit. While CACs are a less comprehensive assessment of a community’s floodplain management program, sufficient information about the community’s floodplain management program can be obtained in order to determine whether there are more serious floodplain management problems in the community.
Several thousand local officials are contacted annually through CAVs, CACs, and other activities such as workshops and formal floodplain management courses. Also, a number of local officials directly contact State or FEMA regional staff for technical assistance. Because of resource limitations in conducting CAVs and CACs in any given year, FEMA has established criteria in prioritizing which communities will be visited or contacted.
Basically, a CAV should be conducted in communities with known or suspected program deficiencies or potential violations or communities experiencing development in the floodplain. CACs are not conducted in communities where more serious floodplain problems or issues are known or suspected. CACs are generally used as a screening tool for determining whether a community should receive the level of attention of a CAV. Together; they provide FEMA with an effective means of monitoring participating communities and providing technical assistance.
FEMA staff can also monitor enforcement by communities through applications for flood insurance policies, which often identify buildings that are potentially in violation of the NFIP minimum floodplain management requirements. In addition, FEMA can monitor enforcement by communities through the LOMR (Letter of Map Revision) process. Requests through the LOMR process to remove land from the floodplain designation based on fill may indicate that floodplain areas have been improperly filled such as in a floodway or in a coastal V Zone or that a building has its lowest floor below the BFE. The respective FEMA regional office will follow-up with the community to determine whether the building or floodplain development is in compliance with the community’s floodplain management regulations and may conduct a CAV if warranted.
Most deficiencies in a community’s floodplain management program or violations of local ordinances are generally due to lack of understanding of the NFIP requirements, lack of technical skills, failure to understand the rationales behind the NFIP requirements, or lack of an appreciation of the insurance implications and other consequences of a decision. Most problems that are identified can be solved through community assistance efforts. When this does not happen, FEMA has procedures in place to conduct an enforcement action in order to obtain compliance by the community. If a community does not adequately enforce its floodplain management regulations, it can be placed on probation or suspended from the Program.
Following a CAV, the community must be given reasonable time to demonstrate buildings are compliant with the ordinance or it must correct any program deficiencies and remedy any violations identified during the visit. This affords the community the appropriate due process. It also makes placing a community on probation, if necessary, and potentially suspending a community legally defensible. As long as a community is making adequate progress toward correcting program deficiencies and remedying violations, FEMA will not initiate formal probation. It is important that the community work toward resolving its problems to ensure that future flood damages and potential loss of life are mitigated. FEMA, however, will initiate probation in a community that does not make sufficient progress in resolving its floodplain management issues or chooses not to address them. The procedures for placing a community on probation or suspending a community from the Program are established in the NFIP regulations at 44 CFR §59.24(b) and (c).
When it becomes necessary to initiate probation, FEMA notifies the community that it will be placed on probation upon 120 days if the community does not demonstrate it has corrected its program deficiencies and has remedied violations to the maximum extent possible. While probation has no effect on the availability of flood insurance, an additional charge of $50 is added to the premium for each policy for a period of at least one year. A 120-day notice is provided to the community so that FEMA can then give policyholders adequate notification of the impending probation and the additional premium that will be charged. According to the NFIP regulations, FEMA must provide policyholders a notice at least 90 days before the probation is to begin. During the 120-day period, the community has the opportunity to avoid probation by demonstrating compliance with the NFIP requirements.
When a community is placed on probation, FEMA sends a letter to the community establishing new compliance deadlines. If the community fails to take remedial measures during the period of probation, the community may be suspended from the NFIP. When a community is suspended from the NFIP, flood insurance is no longer available. Also, the community is subject to limitations on Federal financial assistance described above under Ordinance Adoption.
As of July 23, 2002, there were 7 communities on probation nationwide. Since 1986, 107 communities have been sent a formal notice that they will be placed on probation if they do not address the program deficiencies or violations identified. Out of the 107 communities, 51 have actually been placed on probation. The remaining communities satisfactorily resolved their program deficiencies and violations before being placed on probation. Nine communities were eventually suspended from the Program for failure to enforce the community’s floodplain management ordinance and 4 of those communities are currently suspended for noncompliance. The 5 remaining communities corrected their deficiencies and were reinstated into the NFIP.
Most communities comply with NFIP requirements prior to FEMA’s issuing a probation notice. Communities often recognize that it is in everyone’s best interest to bring the community into compliance before probation or suspension occurs. One of the primary reasons communities comply is to avoid disruptions in the real estate market that would result with the potential loss of flood insurance.
There are certain options that can be applied to individual structures that are determined to be in violation of the community’s floodplain management ordinance. If an insured structure is identified as a violation of the community’s floodplain management ordinance, FEMA can have the insurance company that insures the building review the information and possibly re-rate the structure to reflect the increased risk to the structure. This can result in significantly higher flood insurance rates on the structure, which may cause the property owner to bring the building into compliance.
In addition, Section 1316 of the 1968 Act provides for the denial of flood insurance coverage for any property which the Administrator of the FEMA finds has been declared by a duly constituted State or community to be in violation of State or community floodplain management regulations. Section 1316 can only be implemented in instances when an appropriate authority in the State or community submits a declaration to the Administrator of the FEMA specifically stating that the structure is a violation. Currently, there are over 500 structures that have been denied flood insurance coverage under Section 1316.
States also have a role in the NFIP and many have established State floodplain management programs. Each State has designated an NFIP State Coordinating Agency as a point of contact for the NFIP. Generally, the State Coordinating Agency is the State environmental or natural resources agency or the State emergency management agency. Most States provide technical assistance to communities using FEMA funding under the Community Assistance Program (CAP) – State Support Services Element, their own funding, or a combination of the two. CAP was developed in recognition that there were not sufficient FEMA staff resources to provide technical assistance to or monitor compliance with all the participating NFIP communities (currently 19,700) and that other resources would have to be used.
Many States have adopted floodplain management statutes and regulations and have established and funded their own floodplain management programs. States must also have floodplain management regulations or executive orders in place that meet the minimum requirements of the NFIP for State-owned properties in SFHAs. Where a State requires that communities adopt more restrictive requirements than the NFIP minimum requirements, such as a more restrictive floodway or additional freeboard (requiring new construction to be elevated to a level 1 or more feet higher than the BFE), the State requirements take precedence over the NFIP minimum.
The Federal Insurance and Mitigation Administration (FIMA) and the FEMA Regional Offices conduct field investigations following major flood disasters to evaluate how well the NFIP floodplain management requirements performed. During these investigations, a team of experts inspect disaster-induced damages to residential and commercial buildings and other structures and infrastructure; conduct forensic engineering analyses to determine causes of structural and building component failures and successes; and evaluate local design practices, construction methods and materials, building codes, and building inspection and code enforcement processes.
In addition, the teams make recommendations of actions that State and local governments, the construction industry, building code organizations, and individual property owners can take to reduce future damages and to protect lives and property in flood hazard areas.
Lessons learned by analyzing these building performance findings are also used by FIMA to fine-tune and improve NFIP Floodplain Management Regulations related to building performance, designs, methods, and materials and to develop technical guidance. These assessments are documented by FIMA in Flood Damage Assessment Reports and Building Performance Assessment Team (BPAT) reports. The information and findings in these reports are distributed widely using a variety of methods including technical manuals, workshops, and the Internet, and through formal training courses.
In addition to technical assistance provided to communities as part of a CAV or CAC, FEMA staff provides technical and planning assistance through workshops and other contacts with community officials, property owners, builders and developers, architects and engineers, surveyors, lenders, and other NFIP constituents. Following major flood disasters, FEMA staff work closely with communities in providing technical assistance on the NFIP floodplain management requirements, particularly the substantial damage requirement, and on developing a reconstruction strategy for property impacted by floods to determine appropriate mitigation measures, such as elevation, acquisition, or relocation of flood-damaged structures.
FEMA conducts extensive training of local and State officials responsible for administering floodplain management programs. FEMA conducts a weeklong Resident Floodplain Management Course at FEMA’s Emergency Management Institute (EMI) several times a year. Through this course, FEMA has trained over 1,000 State and local floodplain management officials. An Independent Study Floodplain Management Course is also offered through EMI.
FEMA also offers Resident Courses at EMI on mitigation, including a course on retrofitting flood-prone residential structures and a course on coastal construction. The FEMA regional offices and States deliver field-deployed versions of the EMI Floodplain Management Course as well as conduct throughout the year a number of floodplain management workshops that they develop.
Extensive publications have been produced on the NFIP, including mitigation measures that can be undertaken to minimize or eliminate future flood damages. Examples of these publications include:
• Homeowner’s Guide to Retrofitting: Six Ways to Protect Your House from Flooding
• Answers to Questions about Substantially Damaged Buildings
• Guidance for State and Local Officials on Increased Cost of Compliance Coverage
• Managing Floodplain Development in Approximate Zone A Areas
• Coastal Construction Manual
• Floodplain Management Bulletin 1-98 Use of Flood Insurance Study (FIA) Data
• Technical Bulletin series on NFIP building criteria, such as TB 1-93, Openings in Foundation Wall and TB 2-93 Flood-Resistant Materials Requirements. (Note: there are currently 11 Technical Bulletins published.)
A complete list of publications can be found on FEMA’s website at www.FEMA.gov.
FEMA also promotes and coordinates governmental and non-governmental floodplain management activities and is a consulting agency to other Federal agencies on issues relating to implementation of Executive Order (E.O.) 11988, Floodplain Management. E.O. 11988 establishes a decision-making process for Federal agencies to avoid the long- and short-term adverse impacts on floodplains unless no practicable alternatives exist. If there is no practicable alternative, the Federal agency must mitigate to ensure that the action minimizes any loss of life and property and loss of natural and beneficial values.
1. The Federal Government will make flood insurance available within the community as a financial protection against flood losses
A. if a community adopts and enforces a floodplain management ordinance to reduce future flood risk to new construction in floodplains,
B. provided the community posts a bond equal to 50% of the exposure.
C. if the community carries a umbrella flood policy issued by the Federal Government.
D. if the community has never had a recorded flood loss.
2. The three basic components of the Program are identifying and mapping flood-prone communities, the requirement that communities adopt and enforce floodplain management regulations, and
A. the provision of flood insurance.
B. the reserving of future losses.
C. the marketing of flood insurance through independent agents.
D. the funding requirements of FEMA.
3. The person required by statute to identify and map the Nation’s flood-prone areas and to establish flood-risk Zones in such areas, is
A. the Secretary of the Interior.
B. the Director of FEMA.
C. the Managing Director of the NFIP.
D. the ranking member of the Army Engineers.
4. The results of the Flood Insurance Study conducted by the Federal government are presented on a map,
A. referred to as a Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM).
B. issued by the National Geographic Survey.
C. which is kept confidential by the Department of Interior.
D. which only determines what areas can be insured for flood insurance.
5. “Any man-made change to improved or unimproved real estate, including but not limited to buildings or other structures, mining, dredging, filling, grading, paving, excavation or drilling operations or storage of equipment or materials" is considered by NFIP to be
A. Development.
B. floodplain mismanagement.
C. uninsurable.
D. Evacuation.
6. Under the NFIP, communities must review subdivision proposals and other proposed new development, including manufactured home parks or subdivisions to ensure that
A. that levees and other water-restraining techniques are adequate and in place.
B. these development proposals are reasonably safe from flooding and that utilities and facilities servicing these subdivisions or other development are constructed to minimize or eliminate flood damage.
C. the residents of the community are able to maintain proper Homeowner's insurance.
D. there is little chance of terrorist attack to the community.
7. The NFIP regulations require that foundation and enclosure walls that are subject to the 100-year flood be constructed with flood-resistant materials and
A. be constructed of concrete and/or stone of the highest quality.
B. be completely sealed so that flood waters cannot enter the area.
C. be inspected by qualified engineers every 5 years to make sure they are waterproof.
D. contain openings that will permit the automatic entry and exit of floodwaters.
8. Structures built to NFIP criteria experience
A. insignificant less damage due to water and wind damage.
B. suffer 80 percent less damage through reduced frequency and severity of losses.
C. are much more expensive than those that are not so few people can afford them.
D. suffer 10% less damage through reduced frequently and severity of losses.
9. If a community does not adequately enforce its floodplain management regulations,
A. it can be placed on probation or suspended from the Program
B. there is little than can be done other than increasing the flood premium by 5% - 10%.
C. the community officers responsible for the lack of enforcement can face fines or jail.
D. it will be suspended from the Program for all eternity.
10. Following major flood disasters, FEMA staff
A. take over the municipal and county administration until the disaster has been settled.
B. calls in the military to take control of the community and installs new town, county or state officials to administer the areas.
C. will excuse themselves from any action regarding flooding, turning it all over to the NFIP for claims payments.
D. work closely with communities in providing technical assistance on the NFIP floodplain management requirements,